Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein', born in a revolutionary era, captures the deep tensions and aspirations of a society on the brink of social upheaval. Shelley, profoundly influenced by her parents, William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft, as well as political radical Thomas Paine, constructed her creature as a paradoxical figure who reflects the duality of the oppressed: innocent yet vengeful, sympathetic yet terrifying. This duality speaks to both the revolutionary anxieties and sympathies of Shelley's time, capturing the essence of class struggle and societal fear in a deeply conflicted figure.
The creature's paradoxical nature mirrors the social complexities of the revolution itself. On the one hand, he is a blank slate, beginning life as an innocent, reflective of the pure potential of the oppressed masses who only seek a place in the world. Yet, as he faces relentless rejection, hostility, and exclusion from society, he transforms from a figure of innocence to one of vengeful wrath. This transition speaks to a broader societal fear during the early 19th century: that when the oppressed are denied basic rights and humanity, they might turn from meekness to aggression, challenging the very foundations of the social order. The creature’s vengeful actions, therefore, become a symbolic rebellion against his "creator" Victor Frankenstein, much like the uprisings that pitted common people against the elites in Shelley's era.
Through this transformation, Shelley critiques the fear and hypocrisy of the ruling classes. The creature is brutalized by his experience, his suffering driving him to violent ends, and yet this violence is itself a product of the neglect and cruelty inflicted upon him. The fear he inspires in others represents the anxiety of the upper classes toward the possibility of the oppressed masses, if provoked, rising in rebellion. However, Shelley complicates this picture by ensuring that readers also sympathize with the creature's plight, seeing him as a tragic figure rather than a purely malevolent force. His innocence, seen in moments of vulnerability and yearning for companionship, reminds readers that his vengeance is not born of innate evil but of mistreatment—a critique of a society that dehumanizes and discards those who do not fit within its norms.
Shelley, therefore, uses the creature to evoke sympathy for the suffering masses. Just as the creature is misunderstood and persecuted, the lower classes and marginalized people of Shelley’s time were often painted as inherently dangerous, labeled as threats to social order rather than victims of systemic injustices. By portraying the creature as both an innocent and a terror, Shelley challenges readers to question whether society itself creates the very monsters it fears. If given understanding, respect, and a place within society, the creature might have remained gentle and peaceable. But forced into isolation and treated as an outcast, he responds with aggression—a cautionary tale for those in power who dehumanize others without considering the consequences.
The creature’s paradox thus serves as a layered commentary on the cycle of oppression and violence. His story warns of the potential for revolutionary upheaval when society marginalizes and mistreats certain groups, and at the same time, it reflects the longing for justice and acknowledgement shared by all people, regardless of status. Shelley, with this portrayal, encourages a compassionate approach to the marginalized, suggesting that true social harmony can only be achieved through inclusion, empathy, and a recognition of shared humanity. In this way, the creature embodies not only the struggle of the oppressed but also the possibility of redemption if society is willing to address its own failings.
2. A Race of Devils:-
Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein' captures deep-rooted anxieties about race, otherness, and imperialism through the portrayal of the Creature and Victor Frankenstein’s conflicted role as a creator who recoils from his own creation. Shelley’s narrative resonates as an exploration of the cultural fears and prejudices of her time, as well as a critique of the colonial mindset that constructs “otherness” to justify dominance and exclusion. Through Victor’s creation, the novel reflects a complex web of race-related symbolism, allowing readers to understand how the Creature comes to embody the marginalized and the “Other,” both feared and ostracized by society. Frankenstein’s simultaneous fascination and horror towards his creation symbolize the colonial encounter, wherein the “civilized” Western subject claims control over those who appear “alien” and “different.” This act mirrors the colonial tendency to dehumanize and subjugate individuals labelled as “foreign,” further reinforced by racial prejudice and fear.
The Creature’s experience is marked by his profound isolation and rejection from the society that refuses to recognize him as anything but monstrous. Despite his intelligence and sensitivity, he is condemned by his physical appearance—a judgment that parallels the treatment of colonized subjects, whose value is reduced to superficial judgments by imperialist powers. Shelley's narrative thus critiques the socially constructed hierarchy, wherein physical difference is enough to deem one as "lesser" or “savage.” The Creature’s story is also intertwined with a desire for connection and acceptance—a human need that becomes tragically unreachable because of his appearance and perceived otherness. In essence, Shelley positions the Creature as a victim of racial and cultural prejudice, illustrating how social rejection forces him to become the very “monster” that society labels him to be.
Victor’s colonial mindset is evident in his hubristic ambition to “conquer” nature, attempting to create life without respect for the natural laws or the consequences of his actions. This colonial arrogance leads to profound guilt, reflective of an imperialist legacy that invades and disrupts without forethought for the cultural and moral repercussions. Victor's eventual fear and disdain for the Creature underscore the imperialistic attitudes of superiority, where the colonizer refuses to accept responsibility for their impact on the colonized, instead viewing them as threats or failures. This dynamic is echoed in how empires have historically approached their colonies, initially drawn by fascination and a desire for power, but eventually resenting the repercussions of their domination.
The relevance of 'Frankenstein' to contemporary discussions on race and privilege is evident in global discourses that continue to grapple with postcolonial legacies, systemic racism, and the politics of inclusion. The Creature’s narrative echoes the struggles of those who, due to racial, ethnic, or cultural differences, face exclusion and stereotyping within societies dominated by privileged groups. Modern movements for racial justice highlight this continuing legacy, as marginalized groups strive for recognition and rights in societies that often marginalize them as "Others." In the context of privilege, the Creature’s plight reminds us of the biases that persist in hierarchical societies, where superficial differences still dictate opportunities and acceptance. Issues of global migration, the refugee crisis, and cultural marginalization parallel the Creature’s experiences, as groups deemed “foreign” or “outsider” continue to face prejudice and are sometimes criminalized or feared rather than embraced.
Ultimately, Shelley's 'Frankenstein' urges a reflection on the responsibilities that accompany creation, interaction, and influence over others. It encourages an examination of how individuals, institutions, and even nations handle the power they wield over marginalized groups, reminding us that the fears and anxieties projected onto the “Other” reveal much more about those who impose such labels than those who bear them. Through its critique of imperialist ideologies and racial prejudice, 'Frankenstein' remains a powerful narrative that challenges readers to confront their own biases and to work towards a world that recognizes the humanity and rights of all, transcending the fear of “otherness” and embracing a more inclusive, equitable future.
3. From Natural Philosophy to Cyborg:-
Mary Shelley’s 'Frankenstein', published in 1818, presents a cautionary tale about the consequences of human ambition and scientific overreach. In the age of genetic engineering and biotechnology, the novel has become increasingly relevant as it mirrors our contemporary moral dilemmas and questions the ethical boundaries of scientific discovery. Shelley's narrative explores what happens when humans play God, challenging nature and societal norms by creating life in the absence of ethical or emotional accountability. Today, as we stand on the threshold of unprecedented technological advancements in fields like cloning, genetic modification, and artificial intelligence, 'Frankenstein' serves as a profound warning about the potential consequences of unchecked scientific ambition.
Modern scientific advancements, especially in genetic engineering, directly parallel Victor Frankenstein's quest for knowledge and his experiment in creating life. Cloning, for example, raises ethical questions about identity, autonomy, and the uniqueness of human life. In the 1990s, the cloning of Dolly the sheep sparked significant debate and fear about the possibility of cloning humans, challenging humanity’s understanding of individuality and existence. Much like Victor Frankenstein, who disregarded the moral implications of his experiment, modern scientists often confront questions about whether such knowledge should be pursued simply because it is possible. Similarly, genetic modifications and designer babies, made possible through technologies like CRISPR, highlight humanity’s increasing capacity to alter the fundamental characteristics of life. While such advancements hold the potential for eradicating diseases, they also present ethical dilemmas about genetic “perfection,” discrimination, and the potential creation of social divides between those who can afford genetic modifications and those who cannot.
Artificial intelligence (AI) introduces another layer of complexity in this cautionary tale. As AI systems become increasingly autonomous, they challenge the boundaries between human and machine, echoing 'Frankenstein''s creature, who exists as a being that blurs the line between life and artifice. The novel’s theme of abandonment also parallels the way many AI creations and algorithms are deployed in society without adequate oversight, ethical grounding, or consideration of potential harm. For instance, AI systems used in surveillance or military technology raise significant ethical concerns about their impact on privacy, autonomy, and even human rights. Much like Victor's creation, which becomes alienated and destructive due to his abandonment, AI systems—if not thoughtfully created and monitored—may lead to unanticipated consequences that humanity cannot easily reverse.
One of the most critical lessons from 'Frankenstein' is the danger of scientific hubris. Victor's relentless pursuit of knowledge without concern for the moral implications of his actions resulted in tragic consequences. This mirrors the potential risks posed by modern technology. Scientific advancements, if pursued recklessly, can lead to outcomes beyond human control. Another lesson is the importance of accountability and compassion in the pursuit of knowledge. Unlike Victor, who abandons his creature without guidance or empathy, society today must approach its scientific creations with a sense of responsibility, ethical commitment, and compassion for the beings—whether biological or artificial—affected by these advancements.
In essence, 'Frankenstein' offers a timeless critique of unchecked scientific exploration and urges a balanced approach that considers the moral and ethical dimensions of discovery. The novel challenges us to reflect on the responsibilities we bear when expanding the boundaries of science and technology, especially as these fields grow more powerful and pervasive. It serves as a reminder that humanity must tread carefully in the realm of genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, and biotechnology, embracing innovation while respecting the profound ethical considerations that accompany it.
PART:2 The Frankenpheme in Popular Culture
The concept of "Frankenphemes," introduced by scholar Timothy Morton, refers to cultural symbols, motifs, and themes that originated in Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein' but have since permeated various forms of media and discourse. These “Frankenphemes” are not merely references to the novel’s plot or characters; instead, they represent deeper, universal ideas from the text—such as the dangers of unchecked ambition, the ethical challenges of scientific exploration, and the complexities of human identity and alienation—that have been adapted and reimagined across time and cultures.
In contemporary society, "Frankenphemes" appear in a multitude of contexts, transcending literature and becoming part of political discourse, scientific debates, and popular culture. For example, the novel’s core caution about scientific hubris resurfaces in discussions about genetic engineering, cloning, and biotechnology, where questions of ethics, responsibility, and the potential consequences of “playing God” take centre stage. Political leaders and social critics often invoke "Frankenstein" imagery when addressing the unforeseen dangers of modern innovations, from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to artificial intelligence. Such references draw on the collective cultural memory of 'Frankenstein' as a story about the potentially catastrophic outcomes of human overreach.
Beyond political and scientific debates, "Frankenphemes" also resonates in visual media, including films, television shows, and video games. Numerous adaptations and reinterpretations explore 'Frankenstein'’s themes in settings ranging from futuristic dystopias to corporate environments that blur the boundaries between humanity and technology. For instance, films like 'Blade Runner' and 'Ex Machina' reimagine the creature’s existential dilemmas through artificial beings grappling with their humanity or lack thereof. The persistent return to these themes in media demonstrates 'Frankenstein''s power as an enduring cautionary tale about creation and responsibility.
In essence, “Frankenphemes” serve as cultural shorthand for the complex and often uneasy relationship between human ambition and ethical restraint. They remind us of the timeless relevance of Shelley's novel and highlight how its themes continue to shape and reflect our anxieties in an era defined by rapid technological advancements and shifting cultural values.
1. First Film Adaptation and Popular Retellings:-
> Reflect on the first cinematic adaptation of Frankenstein and how the novel has been retold in countless films, parodies, and adaptations. Why do you think Frankenstein has had such a lasting impact on popular culture? Consider how the novel’s themes have been appropriated to address modern anxieties about technology and humanity.
ANS.:-
The first cinematic adaptation of 'Frankenstein' came in 1910, produced by Thomas Edison’s studio, and it set the stage for what would become one of the most enduring stories in popular culture. While this silent, 16-minute film strayed significantly from Mary Shelley's novel, it introduced visual interpretations of the Creature and established a cinematic tradition of exploring humanity's darker, unchecked ambitions. This early adaptation tapped into the fascination with the boundaries of human knowledge, showcasing Frankenstein as a cautionary tale about the hubris of "playing God." The film’s visual impact made the Creature’s plight hauntingly immediate, a trend that future adaptations would expand upon with greater sophistication in plot and special effects.
Over the following decades, 'Frankenstein' was reinterpreted through countless films, from Universal Pictures’ 1931 classic, starring Boris Karloff, to modern adaptations like 'Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein' (1994) and 'Victor Frankenstein' (2015). Each adaptation has uniquely reimagined Shelley’s themes to address the shifting anxieties of its time. The 1931 version by James Whale, for instance, solidified the image of the Creature as a misunderstood, tragic figure, emphasizing humanity’s deep-rooted fear of the unknown and the consequences of scientific transgression. Boris Karloff’s portrayal became iconic, embodying both horror and pathos, capturing the public's imagination in a way that made 'Frankenstein' a cornerstone of horror cinema.
The reason for 'Frankenstein'’s lasting impact on popular culture is rooted in the novel’s universal themes, which are continuously relevant as humanity advances in science and technology. Shelley's exploration of the ethical limits of scientific discovery speaks to the modern world’s ongoing debates about genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, and bioengineering. These advancements evoke questions similar to those Shelley raised: To what extent should humans interfere with life? What are the moral implications of creating something that may have its own autonomy? The novel’s core cautionary message—that unchecked ambition without responsibility leads to disaster—resonates powerfully as societies grapple with the implications of new technologies.
Moreover, 'Frankenstein'’s theme of alienation and the search for identity has proven universally relatable, especially in an era that increasingly values individuality and questions the essence of what it means to be human. Modern adaptations often shift the focus to the Creature's perspective, depicting him as a victim of circumstance and a symbol of the marginalized or misunderstood “other.” Films like 'Blade Runner' (1982) and 'Ex Machina' (2014) reframe the Creature’s existential struggle within the context of artificial beings who seek to understand their place in the world, thus expanding on 'Frankenstein'’s exploration of identity, purpose, and societal rejection.
The novel has also inspired countless parodies, from Mel Brooks’s 'Young Frankenstein' (1974) to comedic sketches that poke fun at the Creature’s iconic imagery. These parodies succeed not only because 'Frankenstein' is so well-known but because they highlight humanity’s conflicted fascination with the monstrous and the unknown. By juxtaposing humor with the Creature's tragic nature, parodies reveal society's mixed feelings about the consequences of scientific experimentation and the very human tendency to push boundaries, even when the results are frightening or absurd.
'Frankenstein' has endured in popular culture because it explores anxieties that remain central to human experience: the ethical dilemmas of creation, the need for belonging, and the boundaries of human ambition. The story continues to serve as a moral compass and a cultural touchstone, urging each generation to reflect on its advancements and consider the potential costs. As technology continues to progress, the themes of 'Frankenstein'—moral responsibility, the pain of isolation, and the dangers of playing God—remain relevant, providing a framework for discussing the ethical complexities of modern science and the responsibilities of creators toward their creations.
> Think and Discuss: How have various retellings of Frankenstein reshaped its message for new audiences? How do these adaptations either retain or transform the novel’s original critique of scientific ambition and social exclusion?
ANS:-
Over the years, 'Frankenstein' has been retold through countless films, novels, plays, and even television series, each adaptation reshaping its core message to reflect the evolving concerns of society. While Mary Shelley’s original novel centred on the dangers of unchecked scientific ambition and the devastating effects of social exclusion, modern retellings have retained and transformed these themes to suit contemporary anxieties. Each adaptation, whether it adheres closely to Shelley's vision or takes creative liberties, offers a new lens through which to view the moral and ethical questions raised by 'Frankenstein', allowing the story to resonate with diverse audiences across generations.
One of the primary ways that 'Frankenstein' adaptations retain the novel’s original critique of scientific ambition is through their portrayal of the creator’s hubris and the potential consequences of pushing the boundaries of nature. The 1931 Universal Pictures film, directed by James Whale and starring Boris Karloff as the Creature, captured the novel’s warnings about the limits of human ambition. In this adaptation, Dr. Frankenstein’s experiment is less focused on intellectual curiosity than on his egotistical desire to achieve godlike power, showing an almost reckless disregard for the possible outcomes. The tragic fate of both Frankenstein and his creature in the film reflects Shelley’s message that the pursuit of forbidden knowledge without moral accountability leads to disaster. By emphasizing Frankenstein’s hubris, the film underscores the dangers of scientific overreach, especially in a society growing increasingly interested in technological and medical advancements.
Later adaptations, such as Kenneth Branagh’s 'Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein' (1994), attempted to stay truer to the novel’s emotional complexity. Branagh’s version explores Frankenstein’s initial noble intentions, revealing a man who begins his experiment with the hope of conquering death and helping humanity. However, as he becomes more invested in his creation, he loses sight of his ethical responsibilities, ultimately abandoning the Creature. This adaptation retains the novel’s critique of scientific ambition but also highlights the importance of compassion and responsibility, emphasizing that the failure to nurture one’s creations is equally tragic. Here, the Creature’s journey, marked by loneliness and a desperate need for acceptance, directly critiques society’s exclusionary tendencies, portraying the dangers of abandoning those we create, whether through science or society.
In the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, adaptations of 'Frankenstein' have often shifted focus to reflect contemporary fears surrounding technology and artificial intelligence. Films like 'Blade Runner' (1982) and 'Ex Machina' (2014), though not direct adaptations, are heavily inspired by 'Frankenstein' and explore similar themes. These stories reframe the Creature as an artificial intelligence or replicant, beings who seek meaning and identity in a world that views them as mere products. In 'Blade Runner', for example, the replicants struggle to understand their humanity and seek acknowledgment from their creator, echoing the Creature’s plea for recognition and companionship. These adaptations transform Shelley’s critique of scientific ambition into a broader examination of technological creation and ethical responsibility, urging society to consider the implications of AI and robotics in a world where creators often lack accountability. By transforming the Creature into a sentient machine, these adaptations bring Shelley’s warnings into the modern era, urging caution in an age of rapid technological advancement.
Parodies and reimaginings, like Mel Brooks’s 'Young Frankenstein' (1974), transform 'Frankenstein'’s themes to reflect society’s complex relationship with scientific advancement, blending horror with humor to critique humanity’s fascination with pushing boundaries. By turning the Creature’s tragic plight into a comedic spectacle, Brooks sheds light on the absurdities of human ambition and the often ridiculous extremes of scientific experimentation. This parody retains the theme of hubris but explores it through satire, reflecting society’s mixed feelings about science’s promises and failures. Brooks’s humorous take on the Creature’s monstrous appearance and misunderstood nature highlights society’s tendency to ostracize those who are different or misunderstood, retaining the original novel’s critique of social exclusion in a more lighthearted manner.
Furthermore, modern reimaginings such as the television series 'Penny Dreadful' (2014-2016) and 'The Frankenstein Chronicles' (2015-2017) transform 'Frankenstein'’s message for audiences grappling with identity, moral ambiguity, and the consequences of an increasingly scientific worldview. In 'Penny Dreadful', Frankenstein and his Creature are depicted with deep emotional complexity, focusing on themes of self-discovery, loneliness, and the consequences of seeking godlike power. The Creature in this series is a tragic, poetic figure who yearns for human connection and redemption, retaining the novel’s themes of abandonment and the need for acceptance. This reimagining intensifies Shelley’s critique of social exclusion by portraying the Creature as a symbol of the outcast, appealing to modern viewers who empathize with themes of alienation and self-identity.
In all these adaptations, whether they remain true to Shelley’s original vision or take significant creative liberties, the story of 'Frankenstein' endures because it speaks to universal questions about creation, responsibility, and the ethics of scientific exploration. These retellings allow each generation to find relevance in Shelley’s work, connecting with the novel’s themes in ways that reflect contemporary issues and fears. Whether exploring genetic engineering, AI, or societal exclusion, adaptations of 'Frankenstein' have reshaped its message to maintain its relevance, demonstrating the timeless power of Shelley’s warnings about the dangers of ambition and the need for compassion in the pursuit of knowledge.
# Suggested Activities:-
1. Reading and Analysis:-
> Read selected passages from Frankenstein on Project Gutenberg: Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft. Frankenstein; Or, The Modern Prometheus. Project Gutenberg, 1993. www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/84.
“One night during my accustomed visit to the neighbouring wood where I collected my own food and brought home firing for my protectors, I found on the ground a leathern portmanteau containing several articles of dress and some books. I eagerly seized the prize and returned with it to my hovel. Fortunately the books were written in the language, the elements of which I had acquired at the cottage; they consisted of Paradise Lost, a volume of Plutarch’s Lives, and the Sorrows of Werter. The possession of these treasures gave me extreme delight; I now continually studied and exercised my mind upon these histories, whilst my friends were employed in their ordinary occupations.
In 'Frankenstein', Mary Shelley's Creature educates himself through a selection of classic texts he encounters, which profoundly shape his worldview. His reading, which includes works like 'Paradise Lost', 'Plutarch’s Lives', and 'The Sorrows of Young Werther', provides him with insight into human history, philosophy, and literature, enabling him to grapple with profound questions about his existence, identity, and morality.
Through 'Paradise Lost', for instance, the Creature identifies with both Adam, as a being created in isolation, and with Satan, who embodies alienation and resentment. This dual identification accentuates his awareness of his abandonment and fuels his anger towards Victor Frankenstein, his creator. Likewise, in 'The Sorrows of Young Werther', the Creature encounters the depths of human emotion and despair, learning about love, loneliness, and the pains of unrequited affection. These themes intensify his own feelings of rejection and his yearning for companionship, which go unanswered, ultimately heightening his alienation.
While the Creature’s literary education grants him awareness of his suffering, it also deepens his isolation. He becomes equipped with the language to express his despair and anger, but not with the ability to connect with others. His understanding of human values and relationships, gleaned through books, starkly contrasts with his own experiences of exclusion and hostility from humanity. This education, then, while enlightening, becomes a source of agony, as it reinforces his sense of difference and deepens his alienation.
The Creature’s literary education is both empowering and destructive. It gives him a lens to interpret his existence, allowing him to articulate his plight and confront his suffering, yet it also isolates him further by illustrating all that he lacks in human connection. Shelley's depiction suggests that knowledge and self-awareness, while inherently valuable, can also sharpen the pain of isolation when coupled with unfulfilled desires and unreciprocated empathy.
“I can hardly describe to you the effect of these books. They produced in me an infinity of new images and feelings, that sometimes raised me to ecstasy, but more frequently sunk me into the lowest dejection. In the Sorrows of Werter, besides the interest of its simple and affecting story, so many opinions are canvassed and so many lights thrown upon what had hitherto been to me obscure subjects that I found in it a never-ending source of speculation and astonishment. The gentle and domestic manners it described, combined with lofty sentiments and feelings, which had for their object something out of self, accorded well with my experience among my protectors and with the wants which were for ever alive in my own bosom. But I thought Werter himself a more divine being than I had ever beheld or imagined; his character contained no pretension, but it sank deep. The disquisitions upon death and suicide were calculated to fill me with wonder. I did not pretend to enter into the merits of the case, yet I inclined towards the opinions of the hero, whose extinction I wept, without precisely understanding it.
The Creature's self-guided education in 'Frankenstein' exposes him to a breadth of philosophical, moral, and emotional perspectives, profoundly shaping his worldview yet intensifying his sense of alienation. Through these readings, notably *The Sorrows of Young Werther*, he encounters elevated ideas of love, suffering, and individual purpose. Werther's introspective melancholy, grounded in complex disquisitions on death and suicide, deeply impacts the Creature, immersing him in human emotion and reflective thought. This exposure to romantic ideals offers him fleeting ecstasy and instills in him notions of self-awareness, empathy, and longing.
Yet, while literature provides the Creature with a framework to interpret his own turbulent emotions and comprehend aspects of human society, it also alienates him further by underscoring his separation from humanity. The “gentle and domestic manners” that he observes in *Werther* serve as a painful contrast to his own existence, lacking familial warmth, societal belonging, or personal identity within a community. Though the Creature comes to revere Werther, seeing him as “a more divine being than I had ever beheld or imagined,” his adoration only magnifies his loneliness, as he recognizes he cannot embody these ideals or be accepted within human society as he is.
Ultimately, literature empowers the Creature with emotional vocabulary and moral insight but does so in a way that deepens his despair. While he feels sympathy for Werther's suffering, he cannot fully understand it, highlighting the gulf between his intellectual grasp and lived experience. The texts simultaneously cultivate his humanity and exacerbate his alienation, providing insight into his yearning for acceptance and love, but also making him acutely aware of his own difference and the seeming impossibility of such connections in his life.
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