ASSIGNMENT:109
I.A. Richards’ Two Level Structure of Figurative Language
# Personal Information:-
Name:- Hardi Vhora
Batch:- M.A. Sem.:2 (2023-2025)
Enrollment No.:- 5108230032
Paper No.:- 109
Paper Name:- Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics
Paper Code:- 22402
Roll No.:- 08
e-mail:- hardivhora751@gmail.com
# Table of Content:-
Personal Information
Table of Content
Abstract
Keywords
Introduction Of I.A.Richards
Overview Of Figurative Language
I.A. Richards’ Two Level Structure
Example Analysis
Conclusion
References
1. Abstract:-
This paper delves into I.A. Richards’ seminal concept of the Two Level Structure of Figurative Language, which forms a foundational framework for understanding the nuances of poetic expression. Richards proposed that figurative language operates on two distinct levels: the "ground" or literal level, and the "figure" or metaphorical level. Through a detailed analysis of various poetic devices such as metaphor, simile, and symbol, Richards elucidates how these linguistic tools function to convey deeper layers of meaning beyond their surface appearance. By examining the interplay between the literal and metaphorical dimensions, Richards highlights the intricate ways in which poets manipulate language to evoke emotions, provoke thought, and stimulate aesthetic experiences in readers. This abstract offers a glimpse into Richards’ insightful exploration of figurative language, providing a solid foundation for further study and interpretation in the field of literary analysis.
2. Keywords:-
I.A. Richards
Two Level Structure
Figurative Language
Poetic Expression
Literal Level
Metaphorical Level
Poetic Devices
Metaphor
Simile
Symbol
Deeper Layers of Meaning
Language Manipulation
Emotions
Thought Provocation
Aesthetic Experiences
Insightful Exploration
Foundation
Literary Analysis
3. Introduction of I.A. Richards:-
I.A. Richards (born Feb. 26, 1893, Sandbach, Cheshire, Eng.—died Sept. 7, 1979, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) was an English critic, poet, and teacher who was highly influential in developing a new way of reading poetry that led to the New
Criticism and that also influenced some forms of reader-response criticism.
Richards was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, and was a lecturer in English and moral sciences there from 1922 to 1929. In that period he wrote three of his most influential books: The Meaning of Meaning (1923; with C.K. Ogden), a pioneer work on semantics; and Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) and Practical Criticism (1929), companion volumes that he used to develop his critical method. The latter two were based on experimental pedagogy: Richards would give students poems in which the titles and authors’ names had been removed and then use their responses for further development of their “close reading” skills. Richards is best known for advancing the close reading of literature and for articulating the theoretical principles upon which these skills lead to “practical criticism,” a method of increasing readers’ analytic powers.
4. Overview of Figurative Language:-
I.A. Richards, one of the most influential literary theorists of the 20th century, had a profound impact on the study of figurative language. In his seminal work, "The Philosophy of Rhetoric," Richards provided a comprehensive analysis of the nature and function of figurative language in literature and rhetoric.
According to Richards, figurative language is a departure from the literal or conventional use of words to achieve a particular effect or convey a more complex meaning. He argued that figurative language is not merely a decorative device but a fundamental aspect of human thought and communication.
Richards distinguished between two main components of figurative language: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor refers to the subject or primary idea being expressed, while the vehicle is the figurative concept or image used to convey that idea. For example, in the metaphor "life is a journey," "life" is the tenor, and "journey" is the vehicle.
Richards believed that figurative language is not just a matter of substituting one word for another but involves a complex interplay between the tenor and the vehicle, creating a new meaning that transcends the literal sense of the words. He emphasised the importance of context and the associations evoked by the figurative language, asserting that the effectiveness of a figure of speech lies in its ability to create a vivid and memorable image in the reader's mind.
Furthermore, Richards recognized the cognitive and emotional aspects of figurative language. He argued that figures of speech not only contribute to the aesthetic quality of language but also play a crucial role in shaping our understanding and perception of the world. By drawing connections between seemingly disparate concepts, figurative language allows us to express complex ideas and emotions that might otherwise be difficult to articulate.
Richards' theory of figurative language paved the way for a more nuanced and interdisciplinary approach to the study of language and literature. His insights into the cognitive and rhetorical functions of figurative language continue to influence literary criticism, linguistics, and various other fields of study.
In summary, I.A. Richards' view of figurative language emphasised its cognitive and communicative power, highlighting the interplay between the tenor and the vehicle, the importance of context, and the ability of figurative language to create vivid imagery and convey complex meanings. His work laid the foundations for a deeper understanding of the role of figurative language in human thought and expression.
5. I. A. Richards’ Two Level Structure:-
I.A. Richards, in his theory of figurative language, proposed two levels or dimensions: the tenor and the vehicle. These two levels are fundamental to understanding the nature and function of figurative language according to Richards.
1. Tenor:-
The tenor is the underlying idea, concept, or subject matter that is being expressed through the use of figurative language. It represents the literal or primary meaning that the speaker or writer intends to convey. The tenor is the core essence or the principal subject of the metaphor or other figurative device being used.
For example, in the metaphor "All the world's a stage," the tenor is the concept of life or the human experience. The tenor is the subject that is being described or represented through the use of figurative language.
2. Vehicle:-
The vehicle is the figurative concept, image, or comparison that is used to represent or convey the tenor. It is the figurative language itself, the metaphorical or analogical expression that carries the weight of the comparison or symbolic representation.
In the example "All the world's a stage," the vehicle is the concept of a stage, which is used as a metaphorical representation of life or the human experience (the tenor).
According to Richards, the interaction and interplay between the tenor and the vehicle create a new meaning that goes beyond the literal sense of the words. The vehicle provides a vivid and concrete image or concept that helps to illustrate and convey the abstract or complex tenor.
Richards believed that the effectiveness of figurative language lies in the ability of the vehicle to evoke a set of associations, connotations, and implications that enrich and expand the understanding of the tenor. The vehicle brings new dimensions and perspectives to the tenor, allowing for a more profound and multifaceted comprehension of the underlying idea or concept.
Furthermore, Richards emphasised the importance of context and the shared cultural and linguistic background of the speaker/writer and the audience in determining the effectiveness and interpretation of figurative language. The associations and connotations evoked by the vehicle are shaped by the cultural and linguistic environment in which the figurative language is used.I.A. Richards's theory of figurative language revolves around the two levels of tenor and vehicle. The tenor represents the underlying idea or subject matter, while the vehicle is the figurative expression or image used to convey that idea. The interplay between these two levels creates a rich and multidimensional meaning that transcends the literal sense of the words, allowing for a more profound and nuanced understanding of complex concepts and ideas.
Furthermore we can say that,
In the opening line of the chapter “The Two Uses of Language”, Richards declares that there are “two totally distinct uses of language”. However, the two uses have so far remained undistinguished because the theory of language is the most neglected area of all studies. It should be understood that for the explanation of a theory of poetry and for the parochial aim of understanding what is said about poetry, a clear grasp of the differences between these two uses of language is necessary. The mental processes which accompany the uses of language must also be looked into. In psychological terms, the terms ‘knowledge’, ‘belief’, ‘assertion’, ‘thought’ and ‘understanding’ are used ambiguously, and that results in failure to record the exact distinctions between the terms. Richards uses words like causes, characters and consequences while analyzing mental activity, in place of thought, feeling and will. Richards distinguishes between two kinds of causation for mental activity. The first kind is represented by the stimuli affecting the mind through the senses immediately and also by combining what survives from comparable stimuli in the past. The second kind of causation lies in the mind itself, its needs, its receptiveness and the readiness with which it responds to the external stimuli. The impulses which originate take their character and course from the interaction between these two groups. However, these two categories have to be clearly distinguished. The importance of these two factors could be explained by considering a factor like hunger. While a hungry man would eat almost anything which can be chewed or swallowed, he would not bother about the nature of the substance and it will have little effect upon his reaction to the food he eats. In contrast, a person who has had his fill would be selective and eat such things that would be beneficial for health. So far as the character of an impulse depends on its stimulus it would be called reference, which would stand for thought or cognition. The mental condition of a person usually interferes to distort reference to a certain degree. Individual needs can be satisfied only if the impulses are left undistorted.
>> Scientific & Emotive <<
The scientific use of language relies on reference, which is undistorted by the receiving mind. Science is the organisation of references that has advanced because of the rejection of religion. There are different principles upon which impulses may be organised and an examination of them would make one realise that such organisation is inevitable. Many have tried to explain that science depends on some instinct, emotion, or desire and termed it curiosity. Curiosity is a special passion for knowledge that has never been thought of. All the passions and instincts, human needs and desires may influence science. Every human activity would have required the need for undistorted reference at least on one occasion. The essential point is that science is autonomous. The impulses developed in science are modified by other impulses with a view to systematise and arrive at a conclusion to facilitate further references.
To recognise science to be autonomous is different from subordinating all other activities to it. There are innumerable human activities that require undistorted references if they are to be satisfied. Fiction is a form of distorted reference. The use of fiction is not a process of pretension or the world of make-believe. This state is aroused by statements or by analogous things in other arts and are used in many ways. For example, one could say that fiction is used to deceive; however, this cannot be a characteristic feature of poetry. A statement which may be used for the sake of reference, true or false, is the scientific use of language. When the reference is used for the sake of arousing emotions and attitude, it is called emotive use of language.
The distinction between these two uses of language is simple. Words could be either used for the sake of references they point to or for attitudes and emotions which arise. Many arrangements of words evoke attitudes without reference being made, like the phrases in musical compositions. Usually, references are recognised as conditions for or stages in the ensuing development of attitude, for the attitudes are more important than the references. The outcome is to bring about attitudes which do not require truth or falsity of the references. The differences between the mental processes involved in the scientific use of language and the emotive one are different. Whereas the scientific use of language should avoid ambiguity and have a fixed single meaning, emotive use encourages multiple meanings and various connotations of a word. The scientific use of language uses logic, and the ideas are organised so that they do not contradict each other.
Emotive language does not give importance to logical arrangements but relies on emotional interconnection to bring diverse attitudes into one, and in this way it does not matter even if there is contradiction of the references. Richards goes on to illustrate his propositions by discussing the way truth is used in criticism. He discusses three important points in this regard – the scientific sense and its relation to truth; truth as understood as acceptability; and truth that could be regarded as equivalent to sincerity. In the scientific sense, a reference is true “when the things to which it refers are actually together in the way it refers to them.” This means that a reference is true only when the things it refers to are united in the way in which it refers to them; otherwise, it is false. Such a meaning does not involve the arts. The emotive power that is attached to a word cannot be deciphered in a general discussion. In criticism, the most usual sense of the word truth is of acceptability. An understanding of the ‘truth’ of Robinson Crusoe is the acceptability in the interests of the effect of the narrative, not their correspondence with any actual facts involving the principle character. The falsity of happy endings to Lear or Don Quixote is unacceptable to those who have fully responded to the work. In this sense, truth is to be understood as necessity or doing justice. Truth may also be used in the sense of sincerity when discussing art. It may perhaps be most easily defined from the critic’s point of view negatively as the absence of any apparent attempt on the part of the artist to work effects upon the reader which do not work for him. External circumstances are irrelevant where the sincerity of the artist is involved.
6. Examples-Analysis:-
Example 1: "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players." (Shakespeare, As You Like It)
Tenor: Life, human existence
Vehicle: Stage, players
Analysis: In this famous metaphor, the tenor (the subject being described) is life or human existence. The vehicle (the figurative concept used to represent the tenor) is a stage and players. By comparing life to a stage and humans to players, the metaphor creates vivid imagery and implies that life is a performance or a role that people play out. The vehicle of the stage and players evokes associations of drama, acting, roles, and the temporary nature of performances, which enriches the understanding of the tenor (life) as a fleeting and transient experience.
Example 2: "Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul." (Emily Dickinson)
Tenor: Hope
Vehicle: A bird with feathers
Analysis: In this metaphor, the tenor is the abstract concept of hope. The vehicle used to represent hope is a bird with feathers that perches in the soul. The image of a bird with feathers evokes connotations of lightness, freedom, and the ability to soar. By comparing hope to a bird, Dickinson personifies hope as a living, breathing entity that resides within the soul. The vehicle of the bird with feathers adds a sense of delicacy, fragility, and the potential for hope to take flight or be lost, enriching the understanding of the tenor (hope) as a fleeting yet essential part of the human experience.
Example 3: "Love is a battlefield." (Pat Benatar)
Tenor: Love
Vehicle: Battlefield
Analysis: In this metaphor, the tenor is the concept of love or a romantic relationship. The vehicle used to represent love is a battlefield. The image of a battlefield evokes associations of conflict, struggle, strategy, and the potential for victory or defeat. By comparing love to a battlefield, the metaphor suggests that love is a challenging and sometimes tumultuous experience that requires effort, perseverance, and the ability to navigate through difficulties. The vehicle of the battlefield adds a sense of intensity, adversity, and the need for resilience in the pursuit and maintenance of love, enriching the understanding of the tenor (love) as a complex and potentially arduous journey.
Example 4: "Time is a devouring monster." (Anonymous)
Tenor: Time
Vehicle: A devouring monster
Analysis: In this metaphor, the tenor is the concept of time. The vehicle used to represent time is a devouring monster. The image of a devouring monster evokes associations of relentless consumption, destruction, and the inexorable passage of time. By comparing time to a devouring monster, the metaphor suggests that time is an unstoppable and insatiable force that consumes everything in its path. The vehicle of the devouring monster adds a sense of fear, powerlessness, and the inevitability of time's relentless march, enriching the understanding of the tenor (time) as an overwhelming and unforgiving force that shapes our existence.
In each of these examples, the interaction between the tenor (the subject being described) and the vehicle (the figurative concept used to represent the tenor) creates a rich and multidimensional understanding of the underlying idea or concept. The vehicle brings forth a set of associations, connotations, and implications that expand and enrich the comprehension of the tenor, allowing for a more profound and nuanced interpretation of the figurative language.
7. Conclusion:-
In conclusion, I.A. Richards' theory of the two-level structure of figurative language, consisting of the tenor and the vehicle, has had a profound impact on our understanding of how metaphors and other figurative devices function. By distinguishing between the tenor, which is the underlying subject or idea being conveyed, and the vehicle, which is the figurative image or concept used to represent the tenor, Richards provided a framework for analysing the complex interplay between the literal and figurative meanings in language.
Richards' insights into the cognitive and communicative power of figurative language highlight its importance in shaping human thought and expression. The tenor-vehicle interaction allows for the creation of rich, multidimensional meanings that transcend the literal sense of words. The vehicle brings forth a
constellation of associations, connotations, and implications that enrich and expand our comprehension of the tenor, enabling us to express abstract concepts and profound ideas with vivid imagery and emotional resonance.
Furthermore, Richards' emphasis on the role of context and shared cultural and linguistic backgrounds in interpreting figurative language underscores the dynamic and contextual nature of meaning-making. The effectiveness of a figurative expression lies not only in the intrinsic relationship between the tenor and the vehicle but also in the shared experiences and understandings of the speaker/writer and the audience.
Richards' theory has had a lasting impact on various fields, including literary criticism, linguistics, cognitive science, and rhetoric. It has influenced subsequent theories and approaches to figurative language, such as conceptual metaphor theory and cognitive linguistics, which build upon and expand Richards' insights into the cognitive and embodied nature of metaphorical thinking.
In today's increasingly complex and interconnected world, where the ability to communicate effectively and navigate abstract concepts is crucial, Richards' work on the two-level structure of figurative language remains highly relevant. By deepening our understanding of how figurative language operates, we can better appreciate its role in shaping our perceptions, conveying complex ideas, and fostering empathy and cross-cultural understanding.
# References:-
9 November 2017, https://cec.nic.in/webpath/podcast/audios/LITARARY_CRITICISM/m28.pdf. Accessed 26 April 2024.
“I.A. Richards | British Critic, Poet & Literary Theorist.” Britannica, 4 April 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/I-A-Richards. Accessed 26 April 2024.
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